Etna DOCs volcanic soils within the context of John Szabo’s “family of volcanic soils”

After our VinoMilo 2025 Roundtable (Volcanic Wines — The Contemporary Evolution of Volcanic Winemaking) where John Szabo, author of Volcanic Wines, was the featured guest, I wanted to see how well John’s characterization of volcanic soils mapped to the Etna reality. Towards that end, I borrowed a copy of the book from the Barone di Villagrande library (thanks Alphonso) and re-read John’s foundational material.

John stipulates that there is no such thing as volcanic wine but hold to the position that there are volcanic wines. In the former case he is saying that there are no defined qualities that link all wines made on volcanic soils together: there is no volcanic wine. There are, however, wines made from grapes grown in volcanic soils; and these he calls volcanic wines. These wines, he says, “come in a radiant, infinitely nuanced rainbow of colors, tastes, and flavors.” 

John defines volcanic soils as “soils that formed from parent volcanic material” inclusive of lava flows, tephra, soils laced with volcanic ash, and soils that ended in valleys as result of gravity or alluvial activity. He places them into four broad categories:

• Especially young volcanic soils. These are formed on lava and “are more often rock than soil.” These soils have low water availability as enough time has not transpired for these soils to weather into water-retentive clays.
• Soils derived from ash, sand, and tephra. These soils also have a low clay content and tend to drain rapidly.
• Volcanic soils on hillsides. Gravity drains these soils quickly.
• Especially old, highly weathered volcanic soils. These soils have lots of clay and good water retention.

John sees the first three members of the family listed above as relatively infertile. Further, “semi-parched, semi-starved vines produce less fruit, smaller bunches, and thicker grape skins” which lead to “more deeply colored, concentrated, structured, and ageworthy wines with a broader range of flavors.” In John’s view, the stress imposed on the vine by water and nutrient “scarcity” produces the kind of fruit that results in high-quality wines. It should be noted that good drainage is not limited to volcanic-origin soils. Non-volcanics-derived sandy soils as well as chalk soils are also well drained. Soils on hillsides, especially if low in clay content, tend to be well drained whether volcano-derived or not.

The fourth member of this family grouping has better access to water but, according to John, when matched with a dry growing season, “keeps the vines moist, constrained, and able to focus on  even, steady ripening.

Let’s see where Etna soils fall within John’s described family of

volcanic soils.

Etna Soils

"All Etna soil rests on, or directly derives from, lava that flowed and hardened for thousands of years, along with ejected pumice, lapilli, and windblown volcanic ash" (Nesto and di Savino).

Historically, eruptive events at Mt Etna have been of the Strombolian style but occasional Hawaiian-style eruptions generate considerable lapilli fall on the flanks (The Strombolian and Hawaiian styles are described in the table below.). Large active volcanoes with the Etna eruptive style present some of the most complex soil-forming environments on earth (James, et al.).

Source: http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work

Factors such as diversity in age and characteristics of volcanic materials, land surface morphology, local climate, vegetation, and land-use history all contribute to complex soil spatial patterns. In the profile dimension, complex soils result from intermittent tephra deposition, anthropogenic disturbance (in the case of Mt Etna, over 70% of the vineyards are terraced), erosion and subsequent deposition. According to James, et al., "soil profiles may reflect the amount and frequency of tephra deposition as much as 'normal' profile-forming soil processes operating on stable surfaces."

Landscape Formation
Volcanism in the Etna region began during the middle Pleistocene, at around 600 ka. The peak today stands at 3350 m elevation and the base is 40 km across. At elevations below 1100 m, lava varies in age from the 2014/2015 flow to the 500,000-year-old tholeitic basalts of a small area on the lower part of the southern flank (James, et al.). The terrain of historical (12th century to today) flows, as well as some pre-historic flows, is dominated by aa lava (basaltic lava with a rough surface, pahoehoe (basaltic lava with a smooth or billowy surface), and toothpaste (transition between aa and pahoehoe) morphology (James, et al.).

On Etna, depositive explosive activity from the summit crater is frequent with less frequent eruptions, often with higher effusive rates, from the flank vents and Strombolian activity from vents high on the volcano. The tephra varies in deposition rate and particle size with distance and direction from the source and accumulates unevenly on rugged lava surfaces. As an example, areas on the western and northwestern slopes of Mt Etna are barren rockscapes due to insufficient topsoil for significant vineyard development.

Soil Formation
As described above, volcanic activity of Mt Etna is both effusive (lava flows) and explosive (airborne ejection of pyroclastics). According to Nesto and di Savino, the lava flows create a patchwork of terroirs that is pertinent to any discussion of Etna contradas. Initial flows are barren rock pasteurized by heat which, after cooling, require hundreds of years to erode into soil and develop hummus, and, in so doing, become suitable for vines. The erosion product is sand rich in potassium and other minerals. Organic matter, created initially by the growth of micro-organisms (and later by plants and animals), results in rich, fertile soil.

But, according to Marco Perciabobco (Department of Agriculture, Sicily Region), soil parent material in the Etna environment is primarily pyroclastic (My prior post on volcanic soils detail the weathering of these materials). Weathering of this coarse-textured parent material, according to Marco, produces soils with an "aerated hypogeal (underground) environment and the following characteristics:

• Extremely well suited for the growth and development of vine roots
• Soil water stagnations are rare
• They warm easily (this generates stable conditions for the occurrence of the chemical reactions required for the weathering of the finest materials).

Soil Distribution
According to Perciabobco, the Department of Agriculture's soil survey dataset shows five different landscape systems in Etna: northern; northwestern; eastern; southeastern; and southern. The soils of these environments differ in the degree of weathering of the primary clay minerals. From north to south wetness decreases and so does weathering of the volcanic constituents. The soils of the northern landscape, when compared to the soils of the south, are finer textured, have a higher organic matter content, and a have a higher value of cation-exchange capacity.

I spent some time with Benjamin North Spencer (author, The New Wines of Mt Etna) to gain his perspective of the soils of the region. The sub-regions that Ben described were the Southwest, Southeast, East, Northeast, and North. A summary of his perspectives are contained in the chart following and additional clarifying information is provided in the text following the chart.

Southwest
The current surface that we see on Mt. Etna today is the Mongibello facade, consisting of material 15,000 years old and younger. That material overlays an earlier, much wider, shield volcano that has outcroppings in the extreme north and south of the Etna wine region. The material overlaying the shield volcano ranges from 10 to 100 m in depth and consists of recent volcanics: silica, lapilli (tephra of from 2 to 64 mm in size) rippidu, and bombs/blocks (effluvia greater than 64 mm in size are called bombs when molten and blocks when solid).

Southeast
This area has a massive fissure that flows up from the city of Catania to the central craters. According to Ben, there are 35 lateral parasitic craters that feed off the central plumbing. These craters form cones of sand and are endowed with pyroclastic that overlay on themselves. These cones have metal at the top and, as a result of gravitational erosion, a lot more silica and organically rich material at the plateaus. There is a wealth of rich organic material in the areas between the cones, as well as a lot of rich, black volcanic material.

This is a great place to grow grapes: all of the cones; all of the aspects that are presented; all of the different elevations ranging between 400 and 900 m. This is also the area that receives the largest amount of of volcanic sand from the regular eruptions of the volcano. Ben says that we are talking about 1500 lbs of fresh soil each year because of the way the winds spin around the volcano.

East
The Valle del Bove, the horseshoe-shaped structure that dominates on this side of the volcano, is, according to Ben, the original shield volcano's crater. This crater blew the top (15,000 years ago, according to Ben; 8,000 and 60,000 years according to other sources) off the mountain and then fell back in on itself. It collected snowfall from the mountain, forming a glacial lake, and decomposing the volcanics that were the core of the seven volcanoes that comprised the Elliptico. The eastern flank of the volcano was involved in a landslide and deposited water and eroded volcanics over the slope where we find Milo located today. These eroded volcanics were distributed over a very steep and plateaued environment.

Milo’s soil is sandy and of volcanic origin with a substantial portion of ripiddu (lapilli and eruptive pumice) intermixed with red soils from the Sahara Desert deposited here by the aforementioned winds. The sandy soils drain rapidly, forcing the roots to dig deep in search of moisture and nutrients. 

The EtnaDOC Consorzio recently introduced a new DOC map with 142 contrade, eight of which are located in the Milo comune. The map, with an exploded Milo section, is illustrated in the chart below and the physical characteristics of the contrade are illustrated in the chart immediately following.

Information sources: Ugo Nicosia (Marketing and Communications Director, Azienda Agricola Iuppa); communication with Brandon Tokash

Milo is the only area within the DOC where Etna Bianco Superiore can be produced.

Wines on the volcano's east are salty. According to Ben, the soils have a high mineral content but, in addition, breezes coming in off the sea are trapped at altitude and the salt moisture they contain come back to earth with the rain. These mineral, saline wines are endowed with incredible acidity and longevity and, if produced well, can age for 15 to 20 years.

Northeast
Overlying lava flows, most from the Mongibelo volcano. The soils are very fertile due to the rain softening the volcanics and mixing in the organics that fall out of the forests that sit above the DOC areas.

This area has a lot of exposure to the Alcantara Valley. It is exposed to the winds from the north that flow in between the volcano and the Nebrodi Mountains and to the Grecale in its southern reaches.

Steep slopes with great exposure to sunshine during the summer and at midday.

We start to see more international varieties here: Syrah, Chardonnay, Nero d' Avola. Softer tannins, more opulent fruit for the Nerello Mascalese here than for the same variety to the north. Also greater tropical notes.

North
As it relates to climate, my research shows that the Nebrodi Mountains offer some protection to the north slope of Mt Etna but some wind does make it over the top, bringing rain in the autumn and winter and moisture year-round. There are some benefits to this moisture though. The runoff, unlike the case for the runoff on the eastern and southeastern slopes, proceeds downhill at a moderate pace and is absorbed by the lava beneath the soil, This water store then becomes available to the vine roots during the growing season. The major beneficiary of this process is the area between the towns of Solicchiata and Randazzo. The wind from the northeast blows steam from the vents to the southeast creating a shadow which serves to reduce evaporation.

Ben sees the soils of the North as being very young and associated primarily with the current facade (15,000 years old and less). As a result of the youth of the volcanic deposits, the wines have great fruit, great structure, and longevity. The wines also have elegance, better acidity, minerals, and tannins, features that make them collectible. They are also delicious up front.

Ben sees a change in weather as you get up towards Rovitello. There is a dryness in the soil and old vines (100+ years) are planted on their own roots

As you move towards Randazzo, the growers are farming on an outcropping of the ancient volcano. The elevations here are a little lower. Ben says that you can see the interconnectivity between the vines, the old volcanoes, and, maybe, a little bit of limestone that has been pushed up by the tectonic collision between the African and Eurasian plates.

He sees the whites on this side as having a bit more intensity of fruit, more mature fruit, and saline mineral flavors with some tropical notes. The grapes here do not experience as significant a temperature shock as is the case in the previously visited sub-regions.

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Etna DOC appears to have every example of the family of soils described by John in his book and some. For example, the soils in Milo is a mix of eroded volcanics, new emissions, and dust blown i. from the Sahara Desert.

While the greater part of the family, as described by John, has infertile soils, the soils on Etna are moderately fertile. 

One area in which volcanic soils may be linked is an area not identified by John. Based on my research, the decomposition of volcanic material forms allophane, a type of primordial clay, which is sticky for nutrients and holds water temporarily so that it can be accessed by the vine roots. The allophanes, due to their construct, provide a much greater surface area for nutrient attachment than does other more traditional clays.

In future works I will continue to build out on the soil composition at the contrada level.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

Tasting selected vintages of St. Julien's Chateau Léoville Barton

The three current Léoville estates had a common beginning back in 1638 when Jean de Moytie founded a vineyard on a Medoc gravel ridge and named it Mont Moytie. This estate, along with Margaux and Latour, was the earliest wine producer in the region and remained a unit until the period 1826 to 1844 when it was split into three separate entities. The chart below details the history of the estate up until its dismemberment.

The Barton family can trace its Bordeaux roots back to 1722 when it entered the arena as negociants. Its foray into winemaking began with the 1745 purchase of Chateau Le Boscq. In 1826, as shown in the chart above, the family purchased the now Léoville Barton vines, the first step in the dismemberment of the Moytie estate.

A cellar did not come with the Léoville purchase so the decision was taken to vinify the grapes at Langoa Barton, a Barton property proximate to the purchased vines. That practice is still in place today with the chateau displayed on the Leoville Barton label actually being the Langoa Barton chateau. The family has now owned and controlled these vineyards and wines for well nigh 200 years. 

Anthony Barton, who succeeded Ronald Barton, became a crusader for fair pricing to the consumer, a position which has "earned the brand a strong and loyal fanbase."

Léoville Barton is a St. Julien estate. Saint Julien, being south of Pauillac, is slightly warmer but still subject to similar climate-modification effects (see chart below). The soil is similarly gravelly but has less clay and limestone.

The vineyard rests on 51 ha of deep gravel on clay soils supporting the Cabernet Sauvignon (74%), Merlot (23%), and Cabernet Franc (3%) vines. Average vine age is 38 years and planting density is 9000 vines/ha. The vineyard is mostly organic.

As regards winemaking, the hand-harvested grapes are destemmed, sorted, and crushed prior to being gravity-fed into 200-hl wooden vats for fermentation. The must is co-inoculated to allow almost-simultaneous alcoholic and malolactic fermentation. The fermented wine is aged in 60% new French oak for 20 months, with barrel top-ups three times per week. Racking is done using the l'esquive method.

According to thewinecellarinsider.com, "Léoville Barton is a sturdy, structured Bordeaux wine with tannin that requires time to develop. Traditional, masculine and beefy in style, this property is popular with some collectors because of the reasonable prices the estate charged for their wines. Due to the high tannin levels and style of the wine, the best vintages often require decades of age before drinking well."

Tasting selected vintages of Léoville Barton

The Orlando Tasting Group convened on June 7th to taste selected vintages of this estate's wines. The table below indicates the vintages tasted and, where available, the varietal composition. The table reveals the wine as primarily a Cab-Merlot blend with limited Cabernet Franc contribution. The wines were flighted by decade, youngest to oldest.

Year	Cabernet Sauvignon (%)	Merlot (%)	Cabernet Franc (%)
2005	73.5	26	0.5
2004	75	23	2
2003	69	27	4
2000	74	24	2
1998	72	20	8
1996	72	20	8
1995	78	19	3
1993
1990	70	25	5
1982	72	20	8
1976
1975

Flight 1: The 2000s

2005 Chateau Léoville Barton

Beautiful nose of coal, tar, cassis, and chocolate. Broad on the palate with coal tar, blackpepper, and minerality. High acidity. Still not open; needs more time.

2004 Chateau Léoville Barton

Dark red fruit, baking spices, licorice, leather, tobacco, and bay leaf on the nose. Red and dark cherries on the palate. Silky, with a lengthy finish.

2003 Chateau Léoville Barton

Dark fruit, cigar box, cremé de cassis, and graphite on the nose. Expressive on the palate. Medium-bodied. Sweet currants, plum and minerality. Elegant and balanced. This was eventually adjudged the wine of the flight.

2000 Chateau Léoville Barton

Aromatic. Pauillac nose along with baking spices and a savory character. Persistent, thick, rich, and concentrated on the palate. Long, drying finish.

Flight 2: The 1990s

1998 Chateau Léoville Barton

Conditions were very good for this vintage with early bud break and flowering with a hot, dry August favoring good ripening. This particular bottle had issues. Granny's attic and acetic acid on the nose. Dead on the palate.

1996 Chateau Léoville Barton

Mature Bordeaux on the nose with graphite, blue fruit, cassis and leather. Nose carries through to the palate. Silky tannins.

1995 Chateau Léoville Barton

Dark fruit along with sage, earth, cedar, and leather on the nose. Smooth tannins and a lengthy finish. Wine of the flight.

1993 Chateau Léoville Barton

Berries, cassis, graphite, cigar box, cedar on the nose. Medium-bodied. Smooth and balanced with a long finish.

1990 Chateau Léoville Barton

Uninspiring nose but great on the palate. Rich and savory with spicy dark fruit. Excellent finish. Delicious.

Flight 3: The 1980s

1982 Chateau Léoville Barton

Red/black fruit, tobacco, leather, graphite on the nose. Sweet black fruit, leather and iron on the palate. Great length on the finish. A great year overall for Bordeaux and this estate did not miss the boat. Obviously wine of the flight but also picked as wine of the night.

Flight 4: The 1970s

1976 Chateau Léoville Barton

Forest floor, leather, tea, coffee, and tobacco on the nose. Earth and tea on the palate. Age is showing. Adjudged wine of the flight. 

1975 Chateau Léoville Barton

Red fruit, cedar, cassis, leather, and earth on the nose. Red fruit and spice on the palate. Textured. Long finish.

Next up in our tasting series is Chateau Leoville Poyferre.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

King Family Vineyards (Crozet, Virginia): The wines

After an extensive discussion of King Family Vineyards, James and I turned to tasting the wines. Like many producers in emerging regions, King Family Vineyards has a broad portfolio of wines on offer, categorized as follows: Sparkling, White, Red, Rosé, Mountain Plains, Meritage, and Small Batch Series. We tasted wines from each of these categories.

Matthieu is the Winemaker and has held that position for the last 18 years. According to James, Matthieu has complete autonomy over wine direction and production.

Sparkling

We tasted a 2021 Bland de Blanc, a traditional-method sparkling wine the base of which was fermented in stainless steel tanks. Extended sur lie aging. Yeastiness and mint on the nose. Round on the palate with good fruit and acid levels. Sapid. Long, metallic finish.

White

We next turned to the 2022 Sauvignon Blanc. The fruit for this wine is sourced from Childs Family. Aromatic. A sense of weight on the nose but actually light on the palate. Perfumed on the palate. White fruit. Metallic, drying finish.

The 2023 Viognier was not consistent in the vineyard as regards yield. This variety can be very finicky. The wine was fermented in three separate vessel types and aged in stainless steel, neutral French oak, acacia, and concrete prior to blending and bottling. The varietal mix on the wine is 80% Viognier and 20% Chardonnay. The wine is aromatic, but not in a traditional Viognier way. Heavyweight. Thick and rich with some spiciness.

The 2022 Chardonnay underwent full malolactic fermentation then aging on the lees for 9 months with weekly batonnage. Aging was hosted in French oak barrels (25% new; 25% 1 year; 25% 2 year; and 25% 3 year). Unyielding on the nose initially then pear and baking spice aromas emerged. Barrel influence apparent on the palate.

Mountain Plains is a premium label in the King Family Vineyards stable. The 2022 version is a blend of the top selections from the best barrels of Chardonnay, Viognier, and Petit Manseng. Beeswax and slightly honeyed nose. Weighty on the palate with ripe fruit and spice, the latter increasing in intensity with residence in the glass. Full-bodied. Juicy. Cupric.

Petit Manseng is the latest variety to wear the mantle of Great Virginia Hope and King Family Vineyards has an offering in this space. The 2023 Petit Manseng shows sweet white fruit on the nose and palate. Rich and creamy initially, giving way to a dry, mineral palate.

Rosés

Crosé is a dry, Merlot-based Rosé whose moniker is a play on the name -- Crozet -- of the small town in which the estate is located. The color of this wine is the result of limited skin contact. The 2024 exhibited sweet strawberry on the nose and palate. Discordant palate.

The 2023 Mountain Plains Rosé is made from early-picked Petit Verdot. Skin contact evident. Underripe fruit. Varietal weightiness.

Reds

The Cabernet Franc 2023 was aged for 9 months in a combination of concrete and French oak. Violets and hints of bell pepper on the nose. Firm on the attack  but mid-palate issues. Rose petals and spice on the palate along with a slight sweetness. Medium weight with a medium-length finish. 

The Les Petits 2022 is a blend of Petit Verdot and Petit Manseng (the Petits; get it?) and was one of the estate's Small Batch offerings. Mint and red and blue fruit on the nose, along with a waxy pungency. This wine fully engages the palate. Spicy red fruit and bell pepper flavors. Pleasant.

The 2022 Merlot was aged for 16 months in neutral and new French oak barrels. Elegant on the nose  with aromas of baking spices, chocolate, tobacco, and coal. Unfocused ripe dark fruit on the palate. Rich chocolate and spice. Persistent.

The Meritage is the estate's "flagship Bordeaux-style red blend," constructed, as it is, with an eye towards extended bottle aging. The components are Merlot, Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, and Malbec. I tasted the 2022 and 2021 vintages.

The 2022 exhibited thick, rich, ripe dark fruit along with chocolate and spice. Persistent and mineral. The 2021 showed violets, spice, chocolate, and a green note on the nose. Red fruit on the palate and a little thin on the finish. More elegance exhibited here than in the 2022.

Grapes for the 2022 Mountain Plains Red were hand selected and destemmed before a 4- to 8-week maceration in open-top concrete fermentation tanks. After pressing, the wines were aged for 22 months in new French oak barrels. Red and black fruits and violets on the nose. Ripe fruit on the palate. Structured. 

The 2022 Petit Verdot was aged for 21 months in French oak barrels. Intense violet notes on the nose. Lands beautifully on the palate. Rich, with a lengthy finish.

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Matthieu was out of the country when I visited the estate so i did not have an opportunity to gain his insights into his winemaking philosophy, practices, and plans for the future. I hope to address this shortcoming in the not-too-distant future.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

King Family Vineyards: The founding and vineyard characteristics of a Virginia Wine stalwart

King Family Vineyards is a stalwart of the Virginia Wine industry, one which, unfortunately, I have not previously had the opportunity to engage with in a meaningful way.That problem was rectified when Frank Morgan (Mr. VA Wine) arranged for me to sit with James King to discuss the winery and its wines. 

David and Ellen King (James' parents) moved from Houston, Texas to Charlottesville (VA) in 1995 and purchased a 327-acre farm therein. David was a Polo lover and while that was one of the driving forces behind the purchase of the property, the farm also grew alfalfa and corn.

In the Fall of 1997, one Tom Vandenberg knocked on the farmhouse door and asked to lease 10 acres of the property for the purpose of growing wine grapes. In the course of the discussion he indicated that the property appeared well-suited to that purpose. David's interest was piqued so he read a few books and then engaged a vineyard consultant. Six months later they planted 8 acres of vines.

The initial thought was to sell the fruit but they decided to hold some back for wine production. They made 480 cases in 2000 and 1050 cases in 2001. Michael Shaps (Shaps Wineworks)  was the winemaker and the wine was made in space leased from Afton. They were so pleased with the wine that they decided to build a production facility onsite. The winery was brought online in October of 2002. Michael continued in the winemaker role until he was succeeded in 2006 by Matthieu Finot.

The winery built in 2002 had a 5000-bottle capacity. A new facility with 28,000-bottle capacity was brought on line in 2013.

Let us take a step back and examine the physical environment in which the estate operates. 

Physical Environment

First, the farm has expanded from the original 324 acres to 430 acres with the acquisition of the property across the street. The area under vine has also seen an increase: from 8 acres to 55 acres currently. All of the King Family Vineyards land falls within the bounds of the Monticello AVA.

The climate is hot, wet, and humid with potential for frost in the spring (The area is frost-free in May.). Frost-mitigation/prevention techniques utilized by the estate include wind machines  and flying helicopters over the vineyard to push warm air downward.

The area is experiencing greater frequency of drought with the onset of climate change; two within the past decade.

Sols are dyke-loam with a "thin surface layer of granular loam (composed of sand, silt, and clay) covering a deep bed of dense, iron-rich clay ... these soils encourage downward root growth and retain enough water to avoid the need for irrigation in all but the driest of years."

Built Environment

The 55 acres of the farm under vine is distributed between Merlot, Viognier, Chardonnay, Cabernet Franc, Petit Verdot, Petit Manseng and Malbec varieties. The distribution of the varieties across the estate's five vineyards are illustrated in the charts below; as are the planting dates, rootstock, clonal selection, and vine-training methods.

Farming Practices

The vineyards are farmed traditionally but sustainability is a key focus of the enterprise. Cover crops, for example, are employed to both promote competition and to aid in the improvement of soil health. Working with the Army Corps of Engineers, the estate has restored the wetlands habitat on the farm, establishing the area as a "bird-watching hotspot." All activities on the farm are done by hand.

The farm is subject to the presence of insects, pests, and diseases and sprays about 24 times per year to combat same.

When necessary, irrigation needs are met from a 7-acre farm pond.

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I will discuss the tasting of the King Family Vineyard wines in a subsequent post.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

The role of racking in wine production

Wine production yields non-pertinent solids which make their way to the bottom of the fermentation/aging vessels. The figure below illustrates the scope of the problem and the solution -- racking -- that has been devised to separate the wine from this potentially harmful residue.

According to terroirsdumondeeducation.com, "... the act of racking stands out as a pivotal stage in crafting a wine's unique character and ensuring its quality ... Despite its operational simplicity, racking plays a crucial role in determining the final wine's quality and characteristics."

The racking methods available to the winemaker, factors influencing racking, and common issues and solutions are summarized in the following chart.

Chateau Margaux, the famed Bordeaux producer, avers that the success of barrel aging "depends to a large degree on the quality of the racking" operation. During the two years or so of aging that the estate's wines undergo, an average of seven or eight rackings are conducted (at 3-month intervals in Year 1 and 4-month intervals in Year 2).The principle, according to the estate, "consists of separating, with the greatest possible precision, the clear wine from the sediment deposited during the preceding months." Towards that end, the estate adheres to the following practices:

• Do not disturb the dregs
• No pumps
• Use suction to push the wine delicately from one barrel to another
• Real decanting begins when the greater part of the wine has been taken out
• Requires coordination of two cellar workers
• One worker gently tilts the barrel
• Drawer checks the consistency of the flowing wine with the help of a candle and as soon as the wine becomes hazy, the operation is halted.

Macroaeration

For red wines, racking produces benefits beyond the physical realm. Great care is generally taken to protect white wines from oxygen exposure -- except in the case of hyperoxidation and some skin contact wines -- but the higher phenolic content of red wines affords them greater protection from oxygen's deleterious effects. Macroaeration -- aerating fermenting wines by vigorous racking -- takes advantage of these facts to aid in producing softer, less astringent wines which manifest more fruit character and improved color stability.

Joy Ting of Winemakers Research Exchange fleshes out these concepts:

Phenolics such as anthocyanins and tannins are responsible for the color and mouthfeel (astringency) of red wine... Tannins themselves are polymers, large molecules composed of smaller subunits bonded together in a specific way. After tannin polymers are extracted from the skins and seeds of grapes, acid hydrolysis in the grape juice and wine breaks these large polymers into smaller polymers and monomers ... when oxygen is introduced to the wine, it reacts with metals to start a chain reaction that leads to the activation of monomers, making them more likely to react with other monomers to reassemble tannin monomers into polymers. Each time two monomers (or a growing chain and a monomer) bond, they become even more likely to bond again, leading to elongation of the tannin polymer. Put simply, activation by oxygen can begin a cascade that results in faster formations of phenolic polymers. These chains continue to grow, adding more phenolic subunits, until they bond with an anthocyanin. When an anthocyanin is added to the chain, it is not likely to bond with anything else, effectively capping the chain.

These chain reaction of tannin molecules have important effects for the color and astringency of the wine. The perceived mouthfeel of tannins is, in part, related to the length of the phenolic chains. Longer chains have more reactive sites for interaction with salivary proteins, thus the higher the degree of polymerization, the more astringent tannins seem. Micro-oxygenation ... is thought to bind anthocyanins to growing chains before they are lost to precipitation, enzymatic attack, or binding to lees, resulting in better color retention and shorter tannin polymers ... Polymeric pigments (tannin polymers capped with anthocyanins) are less susceptible to oxidation and browning than monomeric anthocyanins so micro-oxidation also aids in color stability by preserving anthocyanins in solution in their colored form.

The racking procedure that is used aerate the red wine is called délestage, or rack and return, and is illustrated graphically in the (a) portion of the chart below. The figure illustrates the protective cloud of carbon dioxide over the solution, preventing oxygen from getting through to the wine. In the first step the wine is racked to a secondary container -- loudly. The figure shows the solution passing through some type of screen which removes the skins and seeds. This is purely optional and is not an official component of the rack-and-return process. If a winemaker seeks to limit tannin extraction, he/she may opt to implement this step.

Step 2 of the (a) component shows the wine being racked back to the original vessel. The solids at the bottom of the tank are rehydrated during this part of the process.

There is a school of thought which posits that the wine still does not get enough oxygen exposure with this process and part (b) of the chart has been implemented to meet this market. An oxygen ingress port (a venturi) is added to the tube prior to its entry into the vessel and the flow of wine draws in air, increasing oxygen levels in the wine.

When grapes that have been over-treated with sulfur-based vineyard mildew and fungus inhibitors are allowed to macerate with the grape skins, some solids can dissolve into the juice. If this hydrogen sulfide is not removed quickly, it can result in mercaptan formation. Mercaptans, according to wineanorak.com, is a large group of very smelly sulfur compounds with smells such as "cabbagey, rubbery, struck flint, or burnt rubber."  Vigorously racking the wine can reduce the level of hydrogen sulfide therein and reduce the potential for mercaptans later in the wine's life. 

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

Dinner at Pesca, a highly recommended seafood restaurant in Amsterdam

My friend Erik Dorr, an Amsterdam native now living in the wilds of suburban Atlanta, had given me the names of three restaurants I should try while in Amsterdam. Of the three, I tried Pesca first, a self-identified "restaurant by Pescatarians, for Pescatarians." As detailed on the establishment's website, "... don't expect a traditional restaurant. We've changed the old rules: no menus or fancy tablecloths. It's all about the experience at the fish market." Now if you have never been to the restaurant, you would not know that this is a statement that is actually operationalized. But don't let me get ahead of myself; let's continue with the web-site statement: "As a guest, you're part of our concept and you get to pick your own fish and dishes." Truer words have never been spoken; but they are meaningless to the first time buyer.

When I arrived at the restaurant, the hostess asked if I had been there before. I said no. She then launched into a fuller description of what the website had alluded to. But first she gave me an unopened can of sardines on which she had written three numbers. My seat number, she said, and you will have to show this to the market folks so that they know where to deliver the food and wine items. I still don't get why the numbers were written on a can of sardines rather than a card of some type. I vaguely remember hearing her say that I could return the unopened can at the end of the night or I could keep it and pay an additional 5 euros. To that end it must be some type of charity initiative.

As she explained it, I would first go to one of the two "fish markets" that were situated against the wall opposite her and each of which was manned by a fishmonger? I would make my selections of the seafood items I wanted to consume that night, after which i would be taken to the wine market to make my selection. Notice there is no beer market. Or Gin market. I had to sit and wait as both of the fish market stations were serving other guests.

When one of the slots opened up I went over and begun a dialogue with my person. Arrayed behind him was a wide selection of seafood. As he explained it, I would select the items I wanted to eat, how I wanted it prepared (from a menu of preparation choices), and the sides. He would then weigh out the portions -- for pricing purposes --  and take this material to the chef to be prepared. I selected Oysters and Hamachi for cold appetizers, mussels and shrimp as the second course, and a Seabreem as my fish dish. I ordered asparagus and French Fries as my sides.

It was rather nerve-wracking, honestly. I don't normally make these kind of decisions when I go to a restaurant. I am normally choosing between completed dishes rather than from the raw materials up. If things went awry here it was all on me.

After the Fish Station I was taken over to the Wine Market. The wines were arranged vertically against a wall with the prices clearly marked next to each. I selected a Meursault. Did I mention that this is currently my go-to white wine? The wine person placed the bottle into a bucket of ice, pulled a glass from the rack, and walked me to my table.

The restaurant had a lively vibe with, as the web site had indicated, nary a tablecloth in sight. The block-like tables were close together so you had a sense of shared seating without it actually being shared. Enthusiastic pescatarians were everywhere.

The cold appetizers arrived and, to the best of my knowledge, this was the first time I was eating Dutch and Irish Oysters. They were delicious. The Hamachi was drizzled with a Rotterdam Soy Sauce. Heavenly. Hamachi with Meursault? To die for.

The warm appetizers were Gambas and Mussels. The shrimps were lightly barbecued and served with salsa verde and spring onions. The Mussels were prepared Asian-style with homemade Sambal, ginger, and lime leaves. Again, the Meursault was an enhancing agent.

By this time I was beginning to question my choices. I had eaten a whole lot and still had not gotten to the fish dish. When the fish arrived I knew that I would only be consuming a part of it. It looked beautiful, laying there waiting for me to attack; but I was saying no mas, no mas. Well I did mas, but not too much. The fish was cooked in a Puttanesca Sauce along with anchovies, olives, and capers. And, I had French Fries and Asparagus as sides. Too much.

The dishes were immaculate but there is a shortcomings to the first visit. You are not sure as to what things will look like on the other side so you run the risk of over- (or under-) ordering. I am much better positioned now to order more effectively the next time around. And there will be a next time.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme