At the turn of the 20th century, viticulture in Chianti was characterized by an imbalance of promiscuous versus specialized vineyards, the mezzadri-directed grape growing, and vineyards in the midst of the plague of the phylloxera louse. The foregoing contributed to a lack of quality of the wines produced in the region.
In the first third of the century, we begin to see an increase in the number of small, specialized vineyards, a response to the steadily increasing price of Chianti. This incentivized some owners and sharecroppers to make the switch to monoculture. These small vineyards generally had row spacing of 1.5 to 2 meters and vine spacing of 0.8 meters.
The broader population of mezzadri was resistant to these specialized vineyards because of the impact on their self-sufficiency.
In addition to its straight-up devastation of the vineyards, phylloxera also affected the mezzadri practices for replacing dead vines or planting new vineyards. As discussed in my most recent post, these plantings had utilized the propagginazione, capogatto, magliolo, or barbatella methods and all were rendered untenable by the presence of the louse in the soil. Instead, the mezzadri planted new vines by field (dry) grafting the cultivar scion onto the phylloxera-resistant rootstock. At that time the rootstock most commonly employed was 420A.
Vineyards
The sharecroppers deserted the land in droves in the period 1950 - 1970 in pursuit of the steadier income from the factories in the north of the country. This was not only a loss of labor for the vineyards, but also a loss of know how, with the attendant deleterious effects on the industry. Many vineyards and terraces fell into disrepair and abandonment.
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| Mezzadri leaving Tuscany for the industrialized North (Source: invitationto.com) |
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| Abandoned farms (Source: invitationto.com) |
For the owners who were interested in continuing to make wine, this removed one of the impediments to increased specialization and the figures below show that they took advantage of the opportunity.
Table 1. Vineyard Plantings in Chianti: Selected Periods
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Before 1964 |
1970 |
1977 |
|
Specialized Vineyards (ha) |
900 |
2648 |
6877 |
|
Promiscuous Vineyards (ha) |
8277 |
8178 |
6122 |
|
Totals |
9177 |
10,826 |
12,999 |
The numbers show an overall increase in planted hectares over the period due largely to sharp increases in specialized vineyard plantings.
But the mezzadri labor in the vineyard had to be replaced in order for the remaining vineyards to function. The solution? Large agricultural machines and “clean cultivation.” Bulldozers were introduced at this time and, according to Nesto and di Savino, they destroyed the old stone terraces and altered the contours of the vineyards in the quest for more vineyard economies of scale. Tractors were utilized for many tasks historically down by the mezzadri and vineyard spacing — 2500 vines/ha — reflected this new reality.
Mechanization led to the small, terraced vineyards being supplanted by large vineyards located in areas more amenable to mechanization; valleys or low-exposure sites which retarded grape ripening.
Clean cultivation involved removing all vegetation from the topsoil except the vines. This practice minimized competition for soil nutrients and maximized yields. There were a number of negative effects, however:
- A reliance on herbicides for weed removal
- Synthetic fertilizers replacing natural ones such as manure
- Increased erosion rates
- Destruction of flora and fauna in the topsoil
- The mixture of synthetic chemical and soil compaction (caused by heavy machinery) was deleterious to topsoil ecological diversity.
In this period, newer vineyards were planted in the lower and middle slopes, with the vines planted downslope in rittochino. These practices led to soil erosion on steep slopes or in areas with loose soil.
Rootstocks
The most popular rootstock in the first half of the 20th century was 420A: it was drought- and phylloxera-resistant; had high active lime resistance, and reduced the vegetative growth of the cultivar.
In the 1960s and 70s Kober 5BB gained attention due to its high yield per plant. It later fell into disrepute after it was shown to be responsible for the lack of concentration in Chianti Classico.
Training Systems
Late-19th-century vines were trained to stakes in the alberello system or to trees in the testucchio system. In the 20th century, trellising systems became more complicated as wires were utilized for shoot support. Until the 1970’s the system of choice in Chianti was the Tuscan Arched Cane. Also called capovolto and Curved Guyot, this system called for the bending of the dominant cane into a bow or arched shape, with the cane then tied to the bottom wire of the trellis. The arching of the cane allowed for denser foliage and higher yields but, with the bunches at different heights, was a headache for manual harvesting.
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| Tuscan Cane |
Single and double Guyot are similar to capovolto and were utilized simultaneously. Single and double cordon versions of cordone speranato were subsequently adopted.
1980s to Current Day
In the late 1980s it was becoming clear that Chianti Classico was falling behind its fellow Tuscan travelers Brunello di Montalcino and the Super Tuscans and, as shown in the chart below, the Consorzio took steps to address the issue.
The chart below illustrates the the elements of the current Sangiovese viticultural architecture with specific reference to Chianti Classico and Montalcino.
Farming Practices
As in the rest of Italy and the world, Sangiovese growers are extending beyond conventional viticulture to organic and biodynamic because of the challenges afforded by the former.
Training Systems
According to Nesto and di Savino, largely due to the presence of Esca, growers in Chianti Classico are moving away from low cordon-spur pruning and back to cane pruning. The cuts that are necessary as the spurs get longer leaves large wounds in the cordon that serve as entry points for Esca. "Because these cuts are in older wood, where sap circulation is slower and more limited, mal dell'esca can easily enter the vine through them. Vines are especially vulnerable during the dormant winter period, when they have no sap to thwart a fungus attack" (Nesto and di Savino). Guyot or Tuscan arched cane resist esca more effectively than cordone speronato trained vines (Nesto and di Savino).
According to Kerin O’Keefe (Brunello di Montalcino), the dominant training system in Montalcino is cordone speranato with most producers having two nodes per cordon. The advantages of this system are (O’Keefe):
- It facilitates mechanized pruning and harvesting (most Montalcino producers perform all vineyard maintenance and harvesting by hand but more and more are using mechanization for pruning and canopy management)
- It best regulates the plant’s production of grape bunches
- It favors a uniform leaf canopy
- It encourages mature vines to produce smaller bunches.
Guyot, according to O’Keefe, was widely planted in Montalcino in the 70s and 80s but was abandoned due to its encouraging the Sangiovese vines to produce too many clusters and berries. Research has shown that, even at different planting densities, cordone speranato produces superior grapes when compared to those trained Guyot (O’ Keefe).
Alberello is a heritage training system.
Planting Density
The right planting density is crucial for quality wines as competition forces the vine to produce fewer, less-compact bunches. (O'Keefe). In Montalcino growers stay under the 8 - 10,000 vines/ha common in other growing areas. It is felt that 5000 vines/ha is optimal for that zone with some of the oldest vineyards coming in at 2200 - 3300 vines/ha and the highest zones going up to as much as 7000 vines/ha.
Canopy Management
A balanced canopy in Montalcino provides optimal photosynthesis and protects against excessive sunlight, with the latter of especial importance in Montalcino due to the prohibition on irrigation.
In Chianti Classico, Michael Schmelzer of Monte Bernardi has introduced a system of braiding -- intrecciatura -- the tender green shoots at the top of the canopy around the top wire of the trellis. This allows the vine to express its growth, leading to higher yields, better tannin ripeness, earlier ripening, lower alcohol, and higher phenolic compound content (Nesto and di Savino)
©Wine -- Mise en abyme
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