Daniele Ricci: From Milan Toll Collector to Timorasso disruptor

Colli Tortonesi Timorasso will be "the next big thing" to emerge from Piemonte and it owes its current position and future potential to the pioneering work of Walter Massa. Massa was not only interested in Timorasso for his own account: "He began to proselytize as regards the variety to anyone who would listen." Daniele Ricci worked as his understudy and acolyte and learned everything that he could before going off and leveraging that knowledge into his own enterprise. I explore Ricci and his wines in this post.

The Backstory

The Ricci Timorasso story goes back to 1929 when the grandparents of Daniele Ricci (Carlo and Clementina) bought Cascina San Leto, land ensconced within an amphitheater of vineyards close to the center of Costa Vescovato. The new owners planted vineyards (6 to 7 ha) and wheat and embarked on cattle-rearing.

During Carlo's stewardship, Timorasso production in Colli Tortonesi declined as farmers shifted to Cortese (more productive) or left farming completely. Carlo, however, bucked both these trends, remaining faithful to the vine and passing it down to successive generations. This was a part of the patrimony when Daniele took control of the estate as a 3rd-generation farmer after a stint as a toll collector on the Italian highway system.

The original Costa Vescovato estate currently sits at 15 ha, 11 of which are planted to vines and 6.5 ha of which are dedicated to named vineyards. In addition to the vines, the estate is planted to small quantities of ancient grains, an orchard, and a vegetable garden. The farmhouse is also resident on this property.

Daniele and his son Mattia secured 8 ha of land in Carezzano in 2022 and immediately planted 1 ha to Timorasso. 

The chart below shows the Ricci holdings in the two Colli Tortonesi communes. Named vineyards are described in colored rectangles.

Formation and Evolution of the Ricci Wine-View

Ricci worked as Mazda’s understudy before going off and planting the 1.5 ha Vigna di Carlo at Cascina San Leto. Walter went on to mentor a large number of the small farmers in the region and they, in turn, formed an association organized around his production principles. They met regularly to compare notes and taste each others wines.

Massa’s  principles, at that time, were as follows:

• Hand harvesting
• Maceration on the skins 
• Soft pressing
• Fermentation with indigenous yeasts in stainless steel tanks
• Spontaneous malolactic fermentation after temperatures reduced to 10 - 18 degrees C
• Wine aged for 1 year in stainless steel tanks (with batonnage)
• Light filtration prior to bottling
• Minimum 6 months bottle aging.

Given his early association with Walter, it is more likely than not that Ricci adhered to these principles early in his winemaking career.

The Colli Tortonesi formula was a key element in Timorasso’s success. The success, in turn, led to (i) new market entrants and (ii) some of the disciples changing the formula and profile of the Timorasso wine in order to place their own stamp on the market. Daniele Ricci was one of these change agents.

Daniele has great respect for the vine and life and sought to “produce varietal wines that are representative of tradition and terroir while working as naturally as possible in both the vineyard and the cellar.” This is manifested in the vineyard by organic farming. He practiced organic farming beginning in 1999 and became certified (Suole e salute) in 2017. But it is in the cellar that Ricci has shown the widest divergence (the disrupting bit) from the traditional recipe with practices such as:

• Long maceration on skins
• Exclusive use of indigenous yeasts
• Refining in underground amphorae
• No filtration
• No fining
• Minuscule sulfur.

Daniele Ricci crafts Timorasso wines from calcareous clay marl vineyards planted in 1986, 1989, 1992, and 1996. His traditional production method is fermentation in stainless steel followed by elevage in stainless steel or untreated oak or acacia barrels. In the case of his Io Camino Da Solo wine, however, the grapes are macerated for 100 days in amphora before transfer to untoasted oak barrels for 12 months aging.

Ricci’s application of these techniques are explicated in his wine portfolio as captured in the chart below.

In addition to the wines shown above, Ricci also makes two sparkling wines dedicated to his Grandmother Clementina. The first is a classic method sparkling wine from 100% Timorasso grapes. It is zero dosage and aged 36 months on the lees. The base wine is a blend of wine macerated for 90 days on skins and wine fermented and aged in acacia barrels in effect a blend of Giallo di Costa and San Leto). The second sparkling wine is a Rosé which has all the characteristics of the wine above except that 5% Barbera is added to the blend and the wine is aged for 24 months on the lees.

I tasted a 2019 vintage of the Derthona recently.

Beautiful brown-orange color attesting to the 3-day skin contact. Derthona nose. Sage and herbs ascendant. Elegant. Wax, spice, peach, lychee, and sago porridge also detected on the nose. Bright acidity with orange-tangerine, drying metal and pepper spice on the palate. Medium weight. Balanced.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

Muscat of Lemnos, Greece's sole Muscat of Alexandria wine

Lemnos, the 8th largest of the Greek islands, has a long history of viticulture and winemaking, evidenced by mentions in the writings of Hesiod and Aristotle. 

Lemnos indicated by red circle

That fame, though, was based on the red grape variety Limnio (also known as  Kalambaki) which was dethroned with the introduction of Muscat of Alexandria (known locally as Moschato Alexandrias) from Egypt in the early part of the 20th century. Today 506 ha of vines are cultivated on the island, 90% to 95% of which is Muscat of Alexandria. 

The island of Lemnos lies low in the water and, as a result, the surface is susceptible to high winds; especially in the winter. The climate is Mediterranean with warm summers and cold, rainy winters. The winds cool the vineyards during the growing season, tempering the effects of the warm sunshine and extending its length. This microclimate allows the grapes to retain acidity as they develop complex aromas.

The growing zone encompasses the entire island but most of the vineyards are located in the central and southern parts of the island, proximate to Atsiki, Moudros, and Nea Koutati. A series of shallow valleys on the southern side of the island facilitate vine-avoidance of the brunt of the strong northerly winds.

The soils are "volcanic, infertile, light, and mainly limestone."

Main grape-growing areas
(Map sourced from greeceguide.co.uk)

Sparkling, dry, and sweet wines are made from the Muscat variety. The sparkling wines can be semi-sweet or semi-dry. The PDO wines from the island are illustrated in the graphic below.

The wines are fortified by adding wine-derived alcohol during -- or just after -- must fermentation. The sweet wines from PDO Lemnos must be aged at least 24 months in oak prior to release on the market.

The Muscat wines are characterized by rich aromas and balanced acidity  with notes of peach, mint, spearmint, apricot, and flowers. According to Elloinos, these wines are "lighter in style, less extracted and less dense compared to other sweet Muscats" across Greece. 

The term Grand Cru can be added to the wine label if the grapes are sourced from low-yield estate vineyards.

The sweet wines can be used at dessert or can be paired with a variety of cheeses and fruit-based dishes.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

Il Poggio di Gavi: Another Gavi-DOCG-based producer of Colli Tortonesi Timorasso wine

Wines from the Timorasso variety have historically been the preserve of "traditional" Colli Tortonesi producers but, as the potential of the variety has become more apparent, "non-local" producers have jumped into the fray.

One such entrant is Il Poggio di Gavi, a winery located in the heart of Gavi DOCG. I report on this estate, and its Timorasso wine, herein.

The Rovereto-Hills property encompassing Il Poggio di Gavi was initially purchased by the father of Franca Odone in 1919 as a family hunting lodge. The lodge was eventually passed on to Franca who cleared the land to plant vineyards. She began making wine from those grapes in 1976. In 2003 she passed the control of the estate on to her daughter Francesca.

The estate makes a number of sparkling, white, and red wines from grapes grown on the 3-ha Gavi estate but it is the Colli Tortonesi offering that is of interest for this post.

The estate owns a 2-ha plot in Colli Tortonesi's Val Borbera, a zone characterized by:

• Elevations ranging between 400 and 600 m
• The highest-altitude vineyards in Colli Tortonesi
• Significant diurnal temperature variation.
• Marly clay and silty marl soils (Lower Oligocene origins).

The Il Poggio plot, dedicated to Timorasso, resides on calcareous clay soils at elevations ranging between 500 and 750 m. The 20-year-old vines have south and southeast exposures.

The first wine from this vineyard was produced from grapes harvested in 2018. The grapes are hand-harvetsed in small crates for transport to the cellar where they are vinified in stainless steel tanks using indigenous yeasts. The wines are aged in steel tanks. The first vintage yielded 83 cases.

I recently tasted the 2019 edition of this wine.

Like most of the Timorasso wines from Gavi producers that I have tasted, this wine was approachable up front. It had a Timorasso-specific, aromatic nose with notes of honeyed wax, sage, pepper spice, sweet white fruit, green and dried herbs, and a marine character. A complex, layered nose.

Weighty on the palate with lime skin, lime-infused salinity, chalky minerality, and coal. Chalky minerality becomes prevalent with the passage of time. A lengthy finish. 

Retains the complexity on the nose but more linear on the palate over time. Unlike the best Timorasso wines, the palate does not transit well to the following day.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

Is Bornova Misketi (Muscat of Bornova), the Muscat cultivar from Izmir, Turkey, the oldest variety in the world?

I am in the early phases of a journey exploring the worldwide deployment of the Muscat cultivar so I was excited when a reader of my post on Muscat of Spina pointed me to a Muscat from the Izmir region of Turkey. This was an exciting lead in that it would allow me to explore very close to the site where Muscat first broke from the initial domesticated cultivar approximately 10,000 years ago.

The name of this Turkish cultivar is Bornova Misketi (Muscat of Bornova), said nomenclature deriving from its village of origin in the Izmir province of the Aegean region. The grape is now primarily grown in the neighboring province of Manisa.

Source; winesofturkey.com

Bornova Misketi is reputed to be the oldest known variety in the world and was mentioned in the 5th-century BC writings of Herodotus.

The growing region in Izmir is blessed with a Mediterranean climate and sandy-loamy soils. The Manisa area has similar soils but sits in a transition zone between the Mediterranean and continental climates and at a much higher altitude.

The soils in Izmir have higher levels of potassium, iron, copper and lime than is the case for Manisa. According to Kareoglau and Cabaroglu (A comparison of the volatile and phenolic compositions of Muscat of Bornova wines from two different terroirs in the Aegean region of Turkey, Food Sci. Technol 40(4), Oct-Dec 2020), higher levels of metal ions can influence the rate of enzymatic browning. Further, lime-rich soils tend to produce quality wines with "better aroma intensity, color, and body."

The characteristics of the Bornova Misketi cultivar are illustrated in the chart below.

The aroma compounds responsible for the characteristic muscat flavor are monoterpenic compounds mainly derived from the grape berry. These aromas result from the presence of threshold levels of terpenes (linalool, geraniol, nerol, citronellol, α-terpinool) and norisprenoids. Terpenes is the most important group of volatile compounds in Muscat varieties with linalool the most abundant compound.

The Kareoglau and Cabaroglu study showed that both the Linalool and Geraniol terpenes had values significantly greater than the threshold levels of typical Muscat wines. For example, the threshold level for geraniol is 30 μg/L while levels in Bornova Misketi is 50 μg/L. 

The purpose of the study, though, was to determine whether Bornova Miskiti was subject to terroir or vintage effects. Wines from the Izmir and Manisa terroirs were studied over two harvest periods and the following findings were reported:

• The terroir effects on the concentrations of all terpene compounds was found to be significant (except for the (E)-pyran linalool oxide and geranic acid concentrations)
• The effect of vintage on all terpene compounds was also found ot be significant.

Dry, semi-dry and fully sweet wines are made from the variety. These wines can be drunk alone as aperitifs as well as pairing extremely well with fruits and vegetables, seafood and white meats, and dishes featuring a variety of spices and savory condiments.

Getting back to the question posed in the title, we know, based on the work of Dong, et al., that Bornovo Misketi is not the oldest variety in the world. That honor is reserved to the CG1 and CG2 cultivars  domesticated in the Caucasus and Western Asia Domestication Centers approximately 11,000 years ago. It is a descendant, however, of the Muscat variety that split form the main line 10,500 years ago. The question remains as to how direct is the linkage.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

The Liatiko variety from Crete, Greece: Terroir, wines, and experiences

In my Pandemic-era InstaLive Chat with Yiannis Karakasis MW, he asserted that "Greek wine cannot become mainstream if we cannot expand the discussion beyond Santorini to other terroirs, other varieties." One of the candidate terroirs that he identified was Crete for the Vidiano (for whites) and Liatiko (for reds) varieties. 

I describe the Liatiko variety, and its terroirs, herein.

According to winesofgreece.org, the Liatiko variety -- which dates back to 3rd or 2nd Century BC -- can produce very fine dry red wines but "reaches its apogee in its sweet versions." The berries are thin-skinned and produce wines with low-color intensity, low acidity, and high levels of tannin.

Liatiko (Source: winesofgreece.org)

A total of 400 ha of Liatiko are planted across the island, primarily on the slopes of the southern and eastern coastlines. The variety is resistant to drought and hot weather and prefers soils rich in clay, lime, and sand. While planted across the island, the best wines are found in Heraklion (PDO Dafnes) and Lasithi (PDO Sithia). The chart below illustrates the terroirs associated with Liatiko.

Liatiko Wines

As previously indicated, Liatiko is utilized in the production of both dry and sweet wines. The dry wines are "intense, with rich, ripe red fruit and sweet spices" on the nose and high levels of alcohol and low levels of soft tannins on the palate. The sweet wines are even more intense with concentrated candied fruit notes and a rich, dense palate and higher levels of acidity. Long barrel aging is a must, with the dry wines requiring at least 5 years. While most red sweet wines are fortified with alcohol during the fermentation, Liatiko sweet wines are made with sun-dried grapes.

The Crete wines with Liatiko content are illustrated in the chart below.

Liatiko Experiences

I have tasted a few Liatiko wines, all, with one exception, being from the Sitia producer Economou. I recount those experiences in the following.

Fredrick Wildman and Son NYC Greek Wine Portfolio Launch

My earliest encounter with the Liatiko grape was in February of 2012 when Markus Stolz (@elloinos) brought a number of Greek producers and wines to New York City to launch the Fredrick Wildman and Sons Greek Wine portfolio. One of the winemakers who accompanied Markus was Yiannis Economou of Domaine Economou and he brought two Sitia VQPRD wines along with him, one 80% Liatiko and 20% Mandilaria, the other 100% Liatiko.

I was particularly impressed with the story and storied wines of Domaine Economou. I had extended conversations with Yiannis and he was highly enthusiastic about his product as well as the opportunity that being a part of this launch provided. He particularly impressed me with his dedication to his principles of production and the aging of his wines; his wines reflect those principles. 

The figure below provides some background on the estate and its operating environment.

Fourth Anniversary Winelovers Reunion in Athens

I encountered the Economou wine again when I was in Athens for the 4th Anniversary Winelovers Reunion in February 2016. The 2006 was served as a part of a dinner we were having at Vintage Wine Bar and Bistro but the owner, Panos Kyriazis, mentioned to me that the recently released 1999 was even better. That sounded like a dare so I bit and purchased a bottle. It was good. So good that I went back the following evening in order to taste this wine again. Once I got back to the US, I sought out the wine and stocked both the 2006 and the 1999 in my cellar.

Greek Wine Tasting in Orlando, FL

This tasting featured flights of Greek wines from different regions and producers. I solicited feedback from participants and used their voices to report on the tasting. The panelists utilized thusly were:

• John Siudut, Proprietor, Vintage Vino
• Andres Montoya, Proprietor, The Wine Barn
• Jill Kathyrn Davis, Former Head Sommelier Capa Grill at the Four Seasons and Del Frisco's Double Eagle Steakhouse
• Ron Siegel, Collector
• Juan Valencia, Assistant General Manager and Sommelier, Norman's at the Ritz Grande Lakes.

The 1999 and 2006 vintages were tasted for the Economou flight. The panelists shared my view that this producer is doing an excellent job and that the 1999 vintage was the better of the two.

John thought that this flight was surprising considering the release dates of the wines. He really enjoyed the brooding power of the 2006 and the distinct power and structure of the 1999 which matured in the glass and was the better wine. These wines reminded Jill of Valpolicella in that they had a raisinated note with high acid.

Juan found the 2006 to be slightly oxidative and raisinated up front. Sweet and sour cherries appeared on the palate shortly thereafter. Supple tannins. Andres saw this wine as having "warm scents of garrigue, smoke, tar, and rose petal," the latter of which could be associated with Nebbiolo from warmer sites. "In the mouth it shows lead pencil, smoked plum, anise and currants, which make it seem closer to Cabernet on the finish."

The Economou 1999, according to Andres, had a beautiful nose of violets, grilled herbs, and red plum (it reminded him of Nerello Mascalese), shows high acidity, and finishes with intensity. This vintage is showing very well. Juan: "Wow. Muscular for its age. Very well structured in terms of acid, and tannin. Fruit was dried and fresh simultaneously."

Swirlery Wine Bar

Earlier this month I went to a local watering hole named Swirlery and after drinking some Champagne, asked the owner Melissa, to find me something interesting to drink. She pulled out a bottle of the 2004 vintage of the Economou. I lit up. I tasted it and remembered why I loved this wine so much. I offered to buy everything that she had but, alas, I had.

K Restaurant Greek Wine Dinner

The third course was a Grilled Swordfish and Octopus dish accompanied by the 2015 Douloufakis Liatiko. The Douloufakis Liatiko showed tar, dark olives, and blue fruit on the nose. Light-bodied. Dark and red fruits. Savory. Mineral. Drying finish. Does not engage the full palate. It will benefit from some aging.

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In Part 2 of my Chat with Yiannis Karakasis, we discussed varieties and terroirs beyond Santorini. Yiannis identified four varieties that he saw as being capable of producing world-class wines: Agiorgitiko (within two to three years), Robolo, Mavrodaphne, and Liatiko. Liatiko, he said, can produce high-quality wines and you need to look no further than the wines of Economou for proof of that assertion.

Keep the wines from Liatiko on your radar then, and snap up the ones from Economou -- if you can find them. According to Joyce Ghosn, one of my Facebook compatriots, responding to one of my posts on this producer and wine: "(In) 2019, prior to the masses discovering this now legendary Cretan winery, this wine retailed for a mere 20 euros. Stocks were removed from the market by their exclusive distributor and a few bottles were put back a few months later, retailing then at 50. Lucky were the people who could put their hands on this vintage then, let alone now. Today it has become the benchmark for all Liatiko originating fgrom Crete and is the reason people have started comparing this variety to Burgundy Pinot Noir." 

In that same comment chain Ian Cauble MS, co-founder of SommSelect and one of the stars of the original Somm, described the Economous as "Incredible wines" while Rico Thompson of Rick Thompson Wine commented that the estate was "crafting some very peculiar, long-aged wines."

Happy hunting.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

The Muscat (of Spina) wine of Crete, Greece

The Muscat grape is one of the oldest and most widespread grape families in the world, splitting, as it did, from the main branch of vitis vinifera some 10,500 years ago. The, predominantly, white wine has a pronounced aromatic quality due to the higher-than-average presence of aroma compounds in the berry. The most planted of the over 200 cultivars in the family are Muscat Blanc á Petits Grains and Muscat of Alexandria and my survey of these cultivars began with a review of the former, as implemented in the wines of Asti DOCG, and continued with the Muscat wines of Samos, Greece.  In this post I continue the survey with a review of the Muscat of Spina wines of Crete, Greece.

History of Crete and Cretan Wines

As shown in the map below, Crete is the southernmost of the Greek islands. The island's wine history

Source: tripsavvy.com

stretches back to the Minoan Period and has, except for the Ottoman period, been a story of successful, high-quality wine.

Selected Aspects of Cretan Wine Growing Environment

The physical and legal environments underpinning selected aspects of the Cretan wine industry are presented in the chart below. The chart highlights the areas of relevance to Muscat of Spina (which I am covering in this post) and the Liatiko variety (which I will be covering in a subsequent post).

Muscat of Spina

According to the literature, Muscat of Spina was another of the forgotten greek varieties (see, Malagouzia, for example) until the brothers Strataridakis (Manolo and Kostis) came along and gave it "the opportunity it needed." Today the variety is well ensconced in Cretan vineyards, the source of single-variety wines that "have earned their place on the top of white aromatic Greek wines."

Moschato Spinas (local terminology) originates from the province of Spina in the prefecture of Chania. The variety is a clone of Muscat Blanc à Petits Grains, differing mainly in berry-skin thickness. It is the only allowed Muscat on Crete. The primary growing areas for the variety today is in Central Crete in the villages of Maza and Spina and the Heraklion region.

The primary characteristics of the variety are detailed in the chart below.

Wines from this variety are characterized as the most flavorful of the wines on the Island with intense fruity and floral aromas of orange peel, lime, lemon blossom and rose petals. Muscat of Spina wines are primarily used as the minor partner in PDO blends (PDO Malvasia Handakis - Candia, PDO Malvasia Sitia) but play a much bigger role in the PGI sphere.

PGI wines using the Muscat of Spina variety can be produced anywhere on the island and can be dry, semi-dry, semi-sweet, or sweet wines. In looking at some of the winery products, the wines can be 100% Muscat of Spina or can be blends. For example, Douloufakis produces a medium sweet wine which is 50% Muscat and 50% Vilana while Titakis produces a wine that is a blend of Muscat and Vidiano.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

Revisiting the Chianti Classico UGAs

I have previously treated the Chianti Classico zonation initiative, based largely on reporting from Decanter. I revist and expand on that effort based on recent work on the topic by John Szabo MS in his vehicle, Wine Align.

According to John Szabo, the Chianti Classico zonation effort is a continuation of the quality pursuit launched by the Consorzio when it introduced Gran Selezione as a quality level above Riserva. The purpose of that initiative was twofold:

1. Distinguish some of the highest quality wines from the denomination
2. Claim a secure spot in the luxury-wine tier.

That effort can only be viewed as a success:

•  154 wineries now make at least one Gran Selezione wine
• That class accounts for 5% of the region's production but 13% of its revenue, a clear testament to market acceptance of the value proposition

The zonation process is illustrated below. 

Chianti Classico declined to pursue UGAs based on soils and topography because of the geologic complexity of the area. As shown in the chart below, the region possesses a diversity of soils: marl (San Casciano Val di Pesa); calcareous clay (Greve and all zones at lower altitudes); sandstone (backbone of Chianti Mountains); limestone (central and southern portions of the district); and tufa (around Castelnuevo Berardenga). When limestone and sandstone are found in alternating layers, that soil is called Galestro. Clay-limestone mixes are called Alberese. According to Berry Bros & Rudd, "The sandy alluvial soils of the lower sites yield fuller, meatier wines while the limestone and galestro soils of the higher vineyards deliver finer, more ethereal examples" (bbr.com).

"The UGA areas are thus not mapped out exclusively according to geology or elevation or microclimate, even if these elements are of course taken into consideration. But the real boundaries were drawn up along cultural and historical lines, refining areas of broadly shared historical heritage and winemaking philosophy." Eleven areas were specified with eight going into effect immediately and three slated to be implemented subsequently. The initial specification only includes the Gran Selezione category. 

The charts above contain much greater detail than previously reported on the geologic characteristics of the UGAs as well as the characteristics of the wines emanating therefrom.

As regards the UGA wines, a producer can place the name of the UGA on the label if the grapes are sourced exclusively from within the UGA. This requirement will be applied retroactively to include wines from the 2022 vintage.

Beginning with the 2027 vintage, UGA wines will be required to contain a minimum of 90% Sangiovese, with the remainder of the restricted to a limited number of native Italian red grape varieties. This latter requirement shuts out the international varieties Cabernet Sauvignon and Merlot.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

Iran: A vitis vinifera conquest on its journey to the Far East

Dong, et al., reports on a dispersal of the vitis vinifera CG1 cultivar in four directions from its domestication point in western Asia, as illustrated in the map below.

High-Level view of the early stages of vitis vinifera
distribution from the Western Asia Domestication
Center (after Dong, et al.)

I have previously detailed hypotheses as to how the cultivar spread into Anatolia and across Europe and North Africa, with reports on the Caucasus and the Far East in the offing. Before addressing the latter endpoints, however, I will cover the evidence of transit through Iran, the point of divergence for the cultivar's onward journeys.

According to the authors, the dual domestications occurred 11,000 years ago. The Little Ice Age had ended by this time and the world was transitioning from the Pleistocene to the Holocene Epoch. 

The cold, dry climate associated with the Younger Dryas (12,800 BP - 11,600 BP) led to a rapid reduction in the size of the lushest vegetation belts and reduction in yields of natural stands of C3 plants such as cereals. 

There was  rapid return of wetter weather post the Younger Dryas and this led to the expansion of numerous lakes and ponds and cultivation of annual crops along the shorelines. The first large villages began to appear (up to 2.5 ha) and they relied on cultivated barley and wheat or "their wild progenitors." 

Neolithic farming communities thrived under the favorable climate conditions of the Early Holocene and expanded "along the Levantine Corridor into Anatolia and neighboring regions." This, then, was the first movement of the cultivated grapevine outside of its birthplace. 

Post-Younger-Dryas warming took 1000 years to reach Iran and another 1000 years to reach the heart of Central Asia. Cereal grasses and trees followed the path of this warming; as did agriculture. The Neolithic -- the period of the origins and early development of agricultural economies -- launched in the Levant around 11,000 years ago and was evident in Iran during the period 10,000 BP - 7500 BP.

Within Iran, Neolithisation did not occur in one fell swoop. Rather, it was evidenced as "a gradual unfolding of multiple episodes of Neolithisation producing patterns of change, continuity and adaptation over several millenia." The chart below illustrates the unfolding of Neolithisation in Iran.

Human groups in Iran's Zagros Mountains developed autonomously -- in relation to the Levant -- during the beginning of the Holocene, with local domestication of goats and early stage agriculture based on barley. The material culture has been confirmed by DNA studies which show that humans from the Zagros and Levant were "strongly differentiated genetically and were each descended from local hunter-gatherers." 

There were a number of core areas that were "large enough to have fostered distinct and thriving societies throughout the Neolithic and beyond":

• Northern, central, and southern Zagros
• Khuzistan lowland
• Southern Iran
• Northeastern Kopet Dag

Of the above, the Khuzistan lowland has "the longest continuous sequence of Neolithic occupation" and the "oldest substantial evidence for agriculture and animal husbandry in Iran." Given our assertion of a nexus between the adoption of agriculture and the adoption of grape cultivation, and the proximity of Khuzistan to the Fertile Crescent, it is quite likely that grape vines were cultivated in Khuzistan at some time in the Neolithic. And that assertion is bolstered by archaeological findings at Hajji Firuj, a Northern Zagros archaeological site which was occupied between 7900 and 7500 BP.

Hajji Firuz was a small village of single-family dwellings with an economy based on a mix of farming and herding, with the latter potentially requiring seasonal migration. The dates of occupation suggest that agriculture and herding at this location was relatively late when compared to Central Zagros and the Khuzistan lowlands. The location of the site is illustrated on the map below.

Red oval highlights archaeological sites where proof
 of winemaking in ancient Iran (Persia) was unearthed. 

Hajji Firuz Tepe was the subject of an archaeological excavation in 1968 at which five 2.5 gallon (9 liter) jars were found embedded in an earthen floor along a wall of a Neolithic mud brick building.  Two of these jars had a yellowish residue on the bottom which, after being subjected to infrared liquid chromatography and wet chemical analysis, proved to be a combination of calcium tartrate and terebinth tree resin.  Tartaric acid in the amounts found can only be associated with grapes and the amount of wine that would be housed in the five containers would be much more than required for a single family's use.  Clay stoppers that perfectly fit the openings at the top of the clay jars were found in close proximity to the jars and was assumed to have been used to prevent the contents from turning to vinegar.  These factors led the archaeologists to tag this site as a wine-production facility -- playfully called "Chateau" Hajji Firuz by Dr. McGovern. As wines in Greece even today are resinated, the assumption is that resin was added to Neolithic wines either as a preservative or for medicinal purposes.

Jar from Hajji Firuz Tepe
(Source: alaintruong.com)

The work done by the McGovern team clearly shows the use/consumption of wine within Neolithic Iran. Given that the domestication of vitis vinifera fell within the bounds of the Fertile Crescent, and that the southwestern part of Iran also fell within the bounds of that construct, its transit route into Iran becomes clearer.

Pottery-making in Iran has a history dating back to the early 7th millennium with the advent of agriculture giving rise to the baking of clay and the making of utensils. The use of clay jars for the storage of wine at Hajji Firuz Tepe is, therefore, a temporal fit.

From Iran, vitis vinifera CG1 made its way to the Caucasus and Central Asia. I will cover the former in my next post on the topic.

Bibliography

Saffaid Alibaigi and A. Salomiyan, The Archaeological landscape of the Neolithic period in the western foothills of the Zagros Mountains: New evidence for the Sar Pol-Ezahāb region, Iraq - Iran Borderland, Iraq, Vol 82, Cambridge University Press, December 2020.

Oliver Barge, et al., Diffusion of Anatolian and Caucasian Obsidian in the Zagros Mountains and the highlands of Iran: Elements of Explanation in 'leastcost path' models, Quaternary International 467 (Part B), February 2018.

Dong, et al., Dual domestications and origin of traits in grapevine evolution, Science, 3/3/23

Encyclopedia Iranica, Neolithic age in Iran.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

Pomino DOC: The gem within the ambit of Chianti Rufina DOCG

Pomino DOC is a vanishingly small (64 ha) appellation resident within the bounds of the Chianti Rufina DOCG. Having extensively treated the latter, I would be remiss if I moved on without alerting readers as to its presence and character.

The story of Pomino DOC is the story of the vision and dedication of one man: Vittorio degli Albizzi.

 Vittorio degli Albizzi

The Albizzi family has Germanic roots dating back to the time of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III. In Italy, the family initially settled in Arezzo but transferred to Florence in the 12th century, and "by the beginning of the Trecento had established themselves as one of the most prominent popolano families." As a result, their political influence swelled in the second half of the Trecento.  

In the 1360s, the Albizzi family fought bitterly with a faction headed up by the Ricci family, a "battle" culminating in the Florentine Signoria banning the Albizzis frrom holding public office for 5 years. The family was not down and out for long, however. At the conclusion of the Ciompi Revolt (1378 - 1382), Florence was governed by an oligarchic regime headed by Maso degli Albizzi. "Maso and his fellow patricians negated the egalitarian reforms created during the Ciompi period and reinstituted a structure that gave a greater voice (and a substantial majority in committees) to greater guildsmen." Masi controlled the government until his death in 1417.

Upon Masi's death, his son Rinaldo took control and managed affairs until his demise at the hands of Cosimo di' Medici in 1434. Rinaldo was exiled, with the family moving to Provence, France.

Amerigo degli Abizzi, the last member of the Italian branch of the Abizzi family, having no heirs, summoned Alessandro -- of the branch of the family that had been exiled to France by the Medici's -- in 1838 to return to Florence along with his wife, Vittoria Le Caruye, and their children Vittorio and Leonia. When Amerigo died four years later, his considerable fortune, including Nipozzana and its castle, Pomino, Poggio a Remole, and Montefalcone in the diocese of Lucca, all passed to Alessandro.

Vittorio, in turn, inherited the family title and fortune upon his father's death. Over the years he became a respected member of the Accademia dei Georgofili, an institution best known for "promoting, amongst scholars and landowners, the studying of agronomy, forestry, economy, geography and agriculture." he also became a friend of Baron Bettino Ricasoli, the "illustrious politician and visionary wine entrepreuner" who "originated the formula for Chianti wine."

The wine environment in Tuscany at this time was characterized  by:

• Poor wines
• Producers and peasant farmers emphasizing quantity over quality
• A preference for growing vines a testuccio or in mixed-growth environments

Vittorio applied the experience he had gained in France to the production of fine wines in Tuscany. For example, he preferred the cultivation of specialized, low-growing vines to the widely deployed a testuccio method. Betweeen 1860 and 1877 he planted an exclusive vineyard at Pomino wherein he introduced the French varieties Cabernet Sauvignon, Pinot Noir, Semillon, and Roussanne (Chardonnay had already been introduced in 1855.). He also experimented at the glassworks in Pontassieve, inventing a stronger glass neck for the traditional straw-covered wine flask.

Vittorio died in 1877 at the age of 39 years. He had no heirs so his estate passed on to his sister Leonia who had been married to Angelo Frescobaldi since 1863.

Pomino -- little apple -- is a DOC (1983) extending over 64 ha, partially overlapping the commune of the same name. The zone has vineyards that reach as high as 767 m, the highest in all of Tuscany.

The area had been identified in 1718 by Cosimo III Duke of Tuscany as one of the four areas in Tuscany with the potential for producing quality wines. In that period the area grew typical Chianti grapes. Pomino DOC is colder than surrounding areas and, as such, is extremely well-suited to the growth of white varieties. 

The soils at Castello Pomino -- the almost-monopole of the DOC -- are sand- and mineral-rich, rocky, and well-drained and range from acidic to slightly acidic.

The varieties grown today include Chardonnay, Pinot Blanc, Pinot Gris, Sauvignon Blanc, and Trebbiano for whites; and Merlot, Pinot Noir, and Sangiovese for reds.

The wines allowed in the region are illustrated in the chart below.

Given the dominace of the Frescobaldi position, I will use their wines as being representative of wine production in the region. Castello Pomino produces a Riserva, a Bianco, a Vin Santo, and a sparkling wine:

• Benefizio Riserva -- 100% Chardonnay that is barrel-fermented and -aged
• Pomino -- Primarily Chardonnay and Pinot Grigio blend that is fermented in SS tanks (mostly) and barrique
• Pomino Pinot Nero -- 100% Pinot Noir fermented in oak conical vats with MLF and aging in barriques
• Vin Santo -- Blend of Trebbiano, Malvasia Bianco Toscana, and San Colombano that is aged in small wooden barrels for 7 years
• Leonia Pomino Brut -- Pinot Noir and Chardonnay blend that is fermented in tank and wood and aged on lees in bottle for 36 months.

Today Pomino DOC wines continue to honor the legacy of Vittorio, as shown by the offerings of Castello Pomino.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

The wines of Chianti Rufina DOCG and its Terraelectae schema

Chianti Rufina DOCG, as a subzone of Chianti DOCG, is qualified to produce any of the wines allowed in the appelation.

 

Screenshot from consorziovini.it

The purpose herein is not to explore those broader wines. Rather, it is to explore the wines that are unique to Chianti Rufina.  A wine is a Chianti Rufina DOCG on the basis of the physical environment and its adherence to/attainment of the specified production disciplines. I have reported on the physical environment in a previous post and will cover the built environment, the production requirements, and the wines herein.

Chianti DOCG is an appellation built on a Sangiovese foundation; and the same holds true for Chianti Rufina DOCG. The fundamental wine of the region is some mix of Sangiovese (> 70%), approved varieties (< 30%), white grapes (< 10%), and Cabernet Sauvignon and Cabernet Franc (< 15%). A listing of the varieties grown in the appellation is shown below.

There are a total of 22 producers of Chianti Rufino DOCG wines and, according to the Consorzio, 20 of those are members of the association. The map below shows the producers and their distribution across the region.

Chianti Rufino map with producers

While ownerships have changed over time (for the most part), a fair number of these locations have been in the grape-growing business for a minute. For example, grapes have been grown at the Selvapiano location since 1826, at Colognole since 1892, at I Veroni since 1585, etc. Notwithstanding the traditional ages of these estates, they are not hidebound, as almost 50% of the producers are either certified organic or are farming according to organic principles. It should be noted that many of these estates are large, with vineyard space accounting for relatively small shares of the surface area.

The table below illustrates the scope of Chianti Rufina DOCG wines.

Beginning with the 2018 vintage, the Chianti Rufino producers introduced a new tier of wine with the nomenclature Terraelectae, a collective mark of the Consorzia and the associated wine. The wine — requirements illustrated in the table above — was created to "eloquently express the finest qualities of Sangiovese in Tuscany.”

The producers had been exploring ways to achieve a more precise representation of their territorial uniqueness and decided that the way forward was to select their finest quality vineyards exclusively dedicated to Sangiovese — one cru per winery — to produce a wine named after that vineyard. The initial vintage was 2018 with ten participating producers. An additional two producers opted to wait until the 2019 or 2020 vintages to provide their offerings.

Writing in Decanter (Chianti Rufina ups its game with Terraelectae, 11/30/22). Michael Apstein stated that all of the 2018s showed very well. Those initial wines are illustrated below.

Apstein: “If the wines remain high-quality and a unique expression of Sangiovese reflecting the distinctive terroir of Chianti Rufina, the Terraelectae moniker on the label will be useful to customers.”

Writing in Terroir Sense Wine Review (The Magnificent 2019 Chianti Rufina Terraelectae Wine, 4/20/23), Ian D’Agata writes thusly about the sophomore edition of the wines: “I have no recollection of having ever, and I mean ever, tasted a similarly impressive set of new wines such as these 2019 Chianti Rufina Terraelectae wines.”

This is a forceful validation of the Chianti Rufina top-end wine direction from a force within the industry.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

Sangiovese terroirs: Chianti Rufina

Chianti DOCG is a large wine zone spreading, as it does, over 15,000 ha and seven subzones in the heart of Tuscany. With a zone of this size, quality is bound to vary between producers and subzones and producers will engage in both intra- and inter-zone competition. For Chianti producers, this competition will extend to include Chianti Classico. 

Such is the case for the producers in Chianti Rufina, the smallest (12,453 ha) of the Chianti subzones.

Map of Chianti wine region with Chianti Rufina
enclosed within the red circle (Map sourced from
chianti.chianti.net)

Chianti Rufina detail with districts indicated
by orange circles (Source: chiantirufina.com)

Chianti Rufina is a source of well-regarded, high-altitude Sangiovese wines which punch above their weight in the market. According to Ian D'Agata, the region's wines:

... range from the sleek, steely, mineral and highly perfumed to the slightly plumper and richer; but to be clear, for the most part, Rufina's are Chiantis that are generally much more penetrating and lifted than any other Chianti or Chianti Classico wine.

Chianti Rufina has taken a step to stay abreast of Chianti Classico's top-level wine initiative (Gran Selezione) by introducing its own elevated-quality wine, Terraelectae. The high regard in which this region is held, and its fledgling initiative, dictate a deep dive on my part. I begin herein with the physical characteristics of the subregion.

History

Vine cultivation and wine-making in what is today’s Chianti Rufina region stretches back to Etruscan times. More recently, land records from 1401 attest to the presence of vineyards at Nipozzano. A document dating to the 15th century — the Statutes of the County of Turicchi, as approved by Messer Leonardo Salutati, the Bishop of Fiesole — records the penalties to be assessed in the event of vineyard fires.

The further history of vine growing in Chianti Rufina most likely mirrors the history of the broader Chianti as I have described it here (broader Tuscany in the 14th century), here (Chianti, 15th to 19th century) and here (Chianti, 20th century).

The first demarcation of the area occurred in the 18th century when Cosimo III, Grand Duke of Tuscany, issued an edict on September 24, 1716, which declared the boundaries of four areas in Tuscany — Chianti, Pomino, Carmagno, and Val d’Arno di Sopra — in which the production and trade of wine "… was subject to regulation and control by the authorities.”

The demarcation of Chianti Rufino was further enshrined in a 1932 Italian Ministerial Decree which established the territorial limits of Chianti and defined the various sub-regions, inclusive of Rufino. Chianti Rufino attained DOC status in 1967 and DOCG status in 1984.

Climate

Chianti Rufino experiences hot summers, with average temperatures ranging between 22℃ and 23℃, and cold and moderately rainy winters. The average winter temperature ranges between 4℃ and 6℃. The average annual rainfall is between 900 and 1150 mm with a summer minimum, the main maximum in autumn, and a secondary maximum between winter and spring. Snowfall is relatively rare.

The region has a temperate sub-coastal climate, according to the Koeppin classification system (revised by Pinna for the Italian area):

• Average annual temperature between 10℃ and 14.4℃
• Average of the coldest month ranges between 4℃ and 5.9℃
• Three months (June, July, August) with average temperature > 20℃
• Annual temperature range: 16℃ - 19℃. 

The characteristic climate of Chianti Rufina is the result of a combination of factors (Consorzio):

• Latitudinal factors
• Orographic factors (slope, exposure, position)
• The Mediterranean — source of masses of humid and mild air in all seasons 
• The Atlantic Ocean — source of moist air masses and relatively mild (polar maritime) air that is colder than the Mediterranean with resulting perturbations causing frontal and vortex systems that are particularly frequent from autumn to spring
• The Eurasian landmass — source of continental polar air masses, particularly cold and dry in the winter
• The Arctic — source of cold air masses all seasons
• The subtropical belt — source of torrid air masses which heat up and gain humidity as they pass over the Mediterranean.

As a part of its zonation study, the Consorzio arrived at the following conclusions vis a vis the Chianti Rufina climate:

• … climate that in general can be defined as a warm temperate climate with a dry, hot summer
• … conclude that the agroclimatic characteristics of the wine-growing area of Chianti Rufina make it a territory suited for quality viticulture
• … the analysis of climatic resources shows excellent levers of radiative and thermal resources and rainfall , which are placed on values similar to those found in the best wine-growing areas in Italy and worldwide
• Furthermore, the risk analysis of critical meteorological events for wine production (low winter temperatures, late frosts, high summer temperatures, precipitation in the pre-harvest period, drought) shows that the risk levels do not appear particularly relevant or in any case they are placed such as not to jeopardize viticulture.

Geology and Soils

The Chianti Rufina zonation study sought to identify the physical characteristics of the subregion and map those to vineyard characteristics in order to determine the optimal locations for allowed varieties. I have reported on the climatic findings of the study in a previous section and turn now to the terrestrial aspects.

The chart below shows the elevations within the Chianti Rufina area. As a result of the region’s location on the slopes of the Tuscan-Romagnola Apennines, growing zone elevations can reach as high as 700 m.

Altitude ranges in Chianti Rufina (Source: chiantirufina.com)

The results of the geological and soil aspects of the zonation study are presented in the chart below.

Key elements of the physical environment have been curated from the writings of Ian D’Agata and Chateau Monty:

• The average elevation across the growing zone is 350 m
• Altitude helps with the moderation of summer heat as well as facilitating thermal excursions — aids acid and aroma retention in as well as extending the ripening period
• Proximity to Arno and Sieve Rivers aids in moderation of summer heat
• Soils of limestone (in the area extending south to Dicomano); sand, galestro-albarese, marl, and marly clays in the south; marly silt and chaotic soils west of Pontassieve and Tigliano; and differential soils in Molino del Piano and Santa Brigida.

I will explore the built environment and the wines of Chianti Rufina in future posts.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme

The spread of vitis vinifera in Western Eurasia

Dong, et al., shocked the wine world by providing genetic evidence of two separate, simultaneous domestications of vitis sylvestris, one in the Caucasus and the other in the Levant. I have described the study methodology and findings in previous posts. 

I have also written on the methodologies employed by the authors in attempting to answer questions regarding: (i) the diversification history of European wine grapevines and (ii) "when and how distinct grapevine ancestors formed in Europe with relevance to Syl-W introgressions." In this post I illustrate the vehicle and routes for grapevine distribution in Europe and North Africa.

Vehicle for Grapevine Spread

The Agricultural Revolution refers to the switch from hunting and gathering as the main methods of food production to the more sedentary domestication and husbanding of plants and animals. The revolution was characterized by domestication of wild flora and fauna and distribution between the original point of production and outlying areas either by migration or cultural exchange.

In the case of Eurasia and North Africa, “Neolithization” occurred when agricultural innovations developed in the Fertile Crescent were distributed to all points of the horizon on the backs of migrating agriculturists. The chart below illustrates the impetus and dispersal directions in the early part of the West-Asian-origin Agricultural Revolution.

Europe

The chart below shows the major population movements in Europe over the last 50,000 years. Hunter-gatherers who had moved south to escape the Ice Age had repopulated the continent, albeit with low-density groups.

This situation changed approximately 8500 years ago when " a wave of populations from the Middle East entered Europe via Anatolia." This migration wave spread farming practices into the region, "initiating the Neolithic Revolution in Europe."

These Anatolian-sourced farmers made their way into Europe via two routes: (i) a northern route across Central Europe and (ii) a westward route along the Mediterranean coast. The routes are illustrated graphically on the map below. The map also shows the ETA of agriculture for selected regions.

North Africa

According to Simōes, et al., the human population in North Africa had exhibited genetic continuity since the Upper Paleolithic, a period of isolation interrupted by the entry of European Early-Neolithic farmers. A study of genes retrieved from remains at a North African site, referred to as KTG, reveals that these European farmers were descendants of the Anatolian farmers who had spread to Europe by way of the Mediterranean route, eventually reaching the Iberian Peninsula.

These migrants travelled to Morocco around 5500 BCE bringing with them new ways of life, farming practices, domestication traditions, and pottery traditions, all of which were adopted by the indigenous populace. 

A second group of genes show up in the profile of the Moroccan populace. This new migratory group is thought to be descendants of the pastoralists who had exited the Fertile Crescent and crossed the Sinai, traveling along the African Mediterranean coast and arriving in Morocco 1000 years after the descendants of the Anatolian-origin farmers.

Grapevine Distribution

The cultivar CG1, a table grape, made its way out of its domestication center north towards Anatolia and west towards North Africa (for the purposes of this post). Somewhere within the domestication center, or within Anatolia, there was a significant introgression of Syl-W genes into CG1. Shortly thereafter, the Muscat cultivar split off from CG1. The new ancestor variant -- CG3 in the figure below — was used both as a table grape and a wine grape.

As the Anatolian farmers traversed Europe in search of new agricultural land, they carried the CG1 cultivar along with them and it interacted with Syl-W variants along the way to form new ancestor-cultivars in the Balkans, the Iberian Peninsula, and Western France (called the Western European ancestor in the below chart).

Dong, et al., identifies the Moroccan vitis vinifera as being inconsistent with a cultivar that travelled through Europe and then crossed over to Morocco. The vines did not exhibit the shared introgression from Syl-W that all European grapes possess. The Moroccan vines would have transited Africa with the descendants of the Levant-origin migrants, finally bringing vinous relief to the inhabitants 1000 years after it was available just across the strait.

The characteristics of the grapes distributed across Europe are as indicated in the table below.

Ancestry Group	Grape	Date of Split from CG1	Syl-W introgression
CG3	Muscat	10,500 years ago	11.4 - 18% ancient
CG4	Balkan Wine	8070 years ago	ditto
CG5	Iberian Wine	7740 years ago	ditto
CG6	Western European Wine	6910 years ago	ditto + 25 - 30% more recent Syl-W introgression

**********************************************************************************************************

I will continue the series with discussions of the distribution of vitis vinifera north into the Caucasus and east into Iran in upcoming posts.

Bibliography

EurekaAlert, Human Mobility and Western Asia’s early State-level societies, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, 5/26/20.

D. Baird, et al., Agricultural origins on the Anatolian Plateau, 3/9/18.

Jan Bartek, Genomics and Archaeology Rewrite the Neolithic Revolution in the Maghreb, ancient pages.com, 6/28/2023.

B. Bramanti, et al., Genetic Discontinuity Between Local Hunter-Gatherers and Central Europe’s First Farmers, science, Vol 326, Issue 5949, 3 Sept 2009.

Muhal Feldman, et al., Late Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia, Nature Communications, 10 (1258), 2019.

Iosif Lazaridis, et al., Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East, Nature 536, 2016.

Iosif Lazaridis, et al., Ancient DNA from Mesopotamia suggests distinct Pre-Pottery and Pottery Neolithic migrations into Anatolia, Science 377, 6609, 25 Aug, 2022.

Fernando Racimo, et al., The spatiotemporal spread of human migrations during the European Holocene, PNAS, April 2020.

Luciana G. Simōes, et al., Northwest African Neolithic initiated by migrants from Iberia and Levant, Nature, 618, 6/-6/23.

Laura Spinney, When the First Farmers Arrived in Europe, Inequality Evolved, Scientific American, 7/1/2020.

©Wine -- Mise en abyme